Unit 3: Land-Based Empires

Major European Developments

• By the 1300s, Europe had been Christian for over 1,000 years, but it remained politically fragmented.
• As monarchies strengthened and trade expanded, Europe became the dominant world power.
• Contact with the Islamic world and classical texts spurred intellectual renewal and set the stage for four major cultural movements.

The Protestant Reformation

The Catholic Church was the most powerful medieval institution but faced criticism for corruption, especially indulgences.

Martin Luther: In 1517, published his 95 Theses, arguing that salvation came by faith alone. He was excommunicated by Pope Leo X.

Christianity Splits:

• Lutherans: Followed Luther, separating from Catholic Church.
• Calvinists: John Calvin promoted predestination; influential in France and Scotland.
• Anglicanism: Henry VIII created the Church of England when the Pope refused his annulment.
• Jesuits: Founded by Ignatius Loyola; emphasized missionary work and education.

Catholic Reformation:

• The Council of Trent (1545–1563) reaffirmed Catholic doctrine, punished heresy, and tried to curb corruption.
• Religious wars spread across Europe as Catholicism defended its influence.

The Scientific Revolution (1450–1750)

The Scientific Revolution was a profound intellectual transformation in Europe during the early modern period. It challenged traditional religious explanations of the universe, promoted reason and evidence, and laid the foundations for the Enlightenment.

Causes of the Scientific Revolution

Renaissance Humanism: Renewed interest in classical Greek and Roman texts encouraged questioning of established beliefs and reliance on observation.

Printing Press: Invented by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century, it rapidly spread scientific ideas across Europe.

Age of Exploration: Navigational challenges required better maps, astronomy, and instruments, fueling scientific inquiry.

Reformation: By weakening the Catholic Church’s monopoly on truth, the Protestant Reformation encouraged independent thought.

Contact with Islamic World: Translations of works by Muslim scholars (like Avicenna and Averroes) reintroduced classical Greek knowledge and advanced mathematics/medicine.

Major Thinkers and Discoveries

Nicolaus Copernicus: Proposed the heliocentric model (sun at the center, earth orbiting around it). This contradicted the geocentric model supported by the Church.

Johannes Kepler: Discovered the laws of planetary motion, proving planets move in elliptical orbits, not perfect circles.

Galileo Galilei: Improved the telescope; confirmed Copernican theories by observing Jupiter’s moons and sunspots. Put on trial by the Catholic Church and placed under house arrest.

Francis Bacon: Advocated for the scientific method — systematic observation, experimentation, and reasoning.

René Descartes: Promoted deductive reasoning; famous for “Cogito, ergo sum” (“I think, therefore I am”).

Isaac Newton: Formulated the universal laws of motion and gravity; synthesized earlier discoveries into a coherent system in his Principia Mathematica.

Impacts of the Scientific Revolution

• Challenged Religious Authority: Undermined the Catholic Church’s claim to exclusive knowledge of the natural world.
• Promoted Rationalism: Emphasized logic, evidence, and mathematics rather than tradition or scripture.
• Technological Innovation: Advances in navigation, medicine, and engineering supported trade, exploration, and empire-building.
• Foundation for the Enlightenment: Inspired philosophers to apply reason to politics, economics, and society in the 18th century.
• Long-Term Effects: Led to the Industrial Revolution (18th–19th centuries) by encouraging a spirit of inquiry and technological development.

Key Theme

The Scientific Revolution represented a shift from reliance on faith and ancient authority to a worldview based on reason, observation, and experimentation. It transformed Europe into a center of global innovation and challenged traditional political and religious structures.

European Rivals

Spain and Portugal

Spain:

• Under Charles V, controlled vast territories across Europe and the Americas.
• Philip II enforced the Spanish Inquisition, targeting heretics.
• Faced revolts in the Netherlands by Dutch Protestants.

Portugal:

• Focused on overseas trade networks—Africa, Indian Ocean, and Spice Islands.
• Dominant early in navigation but later outcompeted by the Dutch and British.

England

Elizabethan Age (1558–1603): Expansion, exploration, and the British East India Company.

James I: Tried to unify England and Scotland but faced Puritan resistance.

Charles I: Ignored Petition of Rights; conflict with Parliament led to the English Civil War.

Oliver Cromwell: Defeated monarchy; ruled as Lord Protector in a republic (English Commonwealth).

Charles II: Restored monarchy; Habeas Corpus Act guaranteed due process.

Glorious Revolution (1688): Replaced James II with William and Mary, who signed the English Bill of Rights, creating a constitutional monarchy.

The Gunpowder Empires

The Gunpowder Empires were the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires. They relied heavily on military strength supported by firearms, artillery, and cannons.

Ottoman Empire

Politics:

• Founded by Osman I; peaked under Suleiman the Magnificent.
• Used Devshirme system: Christian boys from the Balkans were taken, converted to Islam, and trained as Janissaries (elite soldiers) or bureaucrats.
• Sultan was both political and religious leader (caliph).

Economy: Controlled trade routes between Europe and Asia, especially Istanbul (formerly Constantinople).

Culture: Major Islamic art and architecture (Hagia Sophia converted into a mosque, Blue Mosque, miniature paintings).

Social: Millet system allowed religious minorities (Christians, Jews) to govern themselves in exchange for loyalty and taxes.

Safavid Empire

Politics: Based in Persia (modern Iran), ruled by Shahs. Established as a Shi’a Muslim theocracy, creating deep rivalry with Sunni Ottomans.

Economy: Grew wealthy from trade in silk, carpets, and ceramics.

Culture: Persian culture flourished—art, calligraphy, poetry, and architecture (Isfahan as cultural center).

Social: Religious minorities were persecuted; less tolerant than Ottomans. Shi’a identity was strictly enforced.

Mughal Empire

Politics: Founded by Babur, reached peak under Akbar the Great.

• Akbar promoted religious tolerance, abolished jizya tax on non-Muslims, and created the syncretic Divine Faith.
• Later rulers like Aurangzeb reinstated jizya, leading to Hindu resentment.

Economy: One of the world’s wealthiest empires due to cotton textiles, spices, and trade.

Culture: Blending of Persian, Islamic, and Hindu art/architecture (ex: Taj Mahal).

Social: Caste system remained strong; women of elite families sometimes gained influence, but patriarchy dominated.

Trade and Economy in Land-Based Empires

Ottoman Empire: Controlled major trade routes between Europe and Asia, especially through Constantinople (Istanbul). Collected taxes on goods like silk, spices, and coffee. Coffeehouses became cultural hubs.

Safavid Empire: Benefited from silk and Persian carpet trade; Isfahan became a key commercial and artistic center.

Mughal Empire: Economy fueled by cotton textiles, spices, and gems. Strong ties with European merchants, especially the British and Dutch East India Companies.

Qing Dynasty: Traded silk, porcelain, and tea. Restricted European merchants to Canton under the Canton System. Agricultural base remained dominant.

Russia: Profited from fur trade in Siberia, which became a valuable commodity in Europe and Asia. Serfdom expanded to support agriculture.

Tokugawa Japan: Initially open to trade, later isolated under Sakoku policy (except Nagasaki with Dutch/Chinese). Economy grew internally through rice cultivation and merchant networks.

Arts, Architecture, and Culture

Ottoman: Hagia Sophia converted into mosque; Suleymaniye Mosque built under Suleiman. Miniature paintings and calligraphy flourished.

Safavid: Isfahan known for grand mosques, gardens, and intricate tile work. Persian poetry and calligraphy thrived.

Mughal: Taj Mahal built under Shah Jahan as a blend of Persian, Islamic, and Indian styles. Miniature painting and monumental architecture symbolized imperial power.

Qing: Continued traditional Chinese art; porcelain became highly sought after globally. Literature like novels and poetry spread among literate elites.

Russia: Westernization brought European art and architecture; Peter the Great built St. Petersburg modeled on European cities.

Tokugawa Japan: Flourishing of Kabuki theater, woodblock prints (ukiyo-e), and haiku poetry. Confucian and Shinto values reinforced social order.

Religion and Social Change

Ottoman: Sunni Islam was dominant; millet system gave limited autonomy to Jews and Christians. Religious tolerance helped maintain stability in a diverse empire.

Safavid: Shi’a Islam enforced as state religion. Intolerance of Sunnis and other minorities often led to persecution and conflict with the Ottomans.

Mughal:

• Akbar the Great: Promoted religious tolerance, abolished jizya, and encouraged interfaith dialogue (Din-i-Ilahi).
• Aurangzeb: Reversed tolerance policies, reinstated jizya, destroyed Hindu temples, leading to rebellion and decline.

Qing: Promoted Confucian traditions; Buddhism and Daoism tolerated. Christianity was restricted after Jesuit influence threatened Confucian order.

Russia: Eastern Orthodox Christianity central to identity; persecution of Old Believers under Peter and Catherine the Great.

Tokugawa Japan: Persecution of Christians; emphasis on Shinto and Neo-Confucianism. Buddhism remained culturally important.

Africa in the Early Modern Era (1450–1750)

During this period, Africa saw the rise of powerful kingdoms, the spread of Islam and Christianity, and increasing involvement in global trade networks, particularly the Atlantic slave trade. While some states grew wealthy, others faced disruption and decline due to the growing demand for enslaved labor.

West Africa

Songhai Empire:

• Replaced Mali as the dominant West African empire.
• Controlled key Trans-Saharan trade routes, dealing in gold, salt, and enslaved people.
• Islamic scholars in cities like Timbuktu made it a major center of learning.
• Eventually fell in the late 1500s due to Moroccan invasion with gunpowder weapons.

Kongo Kingdom:

• Converted to Christianity through contact with Portuguese missionaries.
• Initially engaged in diplomatic and trade relations with Europe, but later destabilized by the Atlantic slave trade.

Asante Empire:

• Rose in the 1600s in modern-day Ghana.
• Became wealthy by trading gold and enslaved people with Europeans.
• Used gunpowder weapons acquired through trade to expand territory.

East Africa

Ethiopia:

• Christian stronghold in East Africa since ancient times.
• Fought off Muslim invasions with Portuguese assistance.
• Maintained independence but became entangled in regional conflicts.

Swahili Coast:

• Thrived on Indian Ocean trade—exported ivory, gold, and enslaved Africans.
• Islam spread widely through merchant networks.
• Eventually faced growing European interference, especially Portuguese.

Southern Africa

Zimbabwe:

• Declined by 1450 due to environmental issues and loss of trade dominance.
• Legacy: impressive stone ruins symbolized African state-building.

Zulu and Other Chiefdoms:

• Small-scale chiefdoms remained, later to consolidate into stronger states in the 1700s and 1800s.

The Atlantic Slave Trade

Demand for Labor: European colonies in the Americas needed workers for sugar, tobacco, and cotton plantations.

Middle Passage: The brutal transatlantic journey enslaved Africans endured. Mortality rates were extremely high due to overcrowding, disease, and abuse.

Impact on Africa:

• Millions of Africans forcibly removed, causing population decline and social disruption.
• Some African states grew wealthy by selling enslaved people, while others collapsed from instability.
• Gender imbalance grew, as most enslaved were young men, reshaping African social structures.

Religion and Culture

Islam: Continued spreading through trade networks in West and East Africa, often blending with traditional African beliefs (syncretism).

Christianity: Strengthened in Ethiopia and the Kongo; often adapted with local traditions.

Cultural Continuity: Despite the slave trade, African oral traditions, music, and spiritual practices survived and influenced the cultures of the Americas.

Key Themes

• Gunpowder weapons and global trade transformed African states.
• Some empires like Songhai and Asante prospered, while others fell due to European intervention and internal conflict.
• The Atlantic slave trade permanently altered Africa’s demography, economy, and cultural landscape.