Unit 6: Consequences of Industrialization

In Search of Natural Resources

Industrialization increased the demand for raw materials far beyond what Europe itself could supply. While Europe had abundant coal and iron for power and machines, it needed other materials to fuel growing industries and feed urban populations. Colonization became the primary solution.

Why Colonization Increased

Raw Materials: Colonies provided cotton, palm oil, rubber, copper, and tin — essential for factories and railroads.

Wealth from Colonization: Colonization enriched industrial nations by supplying cheap resources and captive markets for manufactured goods.

Environmental Costs: Extractive economies depleted resources quickly, destroyed forests, and caused widespread pollution in colonized regions.

Transnational Businesses: Corporations like the British East India Company and later multinational firms became powerful players in global trade, strengthening Europe’s economic grip on Asia and Africa.

Takeaway: Industrialization tied directly to imperialism. Without colonies, Europe could not sustain its industrial growth, making global conquest both an economic and political necessity.

European Justification of Imperialism

While Enlightenment ideals promoted equality and human rights, many Europeans in the 19th century justified imperialism through ethnocentrism and pseudoscientific theories. These ideas allowed them to claim that colonization was not exploitation but a “civilizing mission.”

Major Justifications

Ethnocentrism: Europeans believed their culture was superior. They viewed non-Western societies as backward or uncivilized, which “justified” conquest.

Social Darwinism: Applied Charles Darwin’s theory of natural selection to human societies. Claimed that dominant races and classes were biologically fitter, so European dominance was “natural.”

The White Man’s Burden: Popularized by Rudyard Kipling’s poem, this idea claimed Europeans had a moral duty to civilize and uplift “less developed” peoples, framing imperialism as benevolence instead of exploitation.

Takeaway: These ideologies created a moral shield for imperialism, masking the exploitation of colonized people and resources under the guise of science and morality.

European Imperialism in India

India became one of the most important colonies of the British Empire. Its vast resources, large population, and strategic location made it the “jewel in the crown” of British imperialism. The process of colonization transformed India’s politics, economy, and society, and sparked major resistance movements.

Why India Attracted European Imperialism

Valuable Resources: India produced luxury goods such as tea, sugar, salt, silk, and jute that were highly desired in Europe.

Weakness of the Mughal Empire: After centuries of rule, the Mughal Empire weakened due to internal divisions, wars, and religious conflict, leaving India vulnerable to external powers.

Rivalry Between European Powers: France and Britain fought for control in India during the Seven Years’ War (1756–1763). Britain emerged victorious, paving the way for dominance.

The Role of the British East India Company

• The British East India Company (BEIC) was a joint-stock company with exclusive rights to trade in India. It functioned like a multinational corporation with its own army and administrative powers.
• Under leaders such as Robert Clive, the BEIC gradually took over Mughal territories, establishing control over regions like Ceylon, Punjab, northern India, and later Pakistan and Afghanistan.
• The company profited enormously, but its policies often exploited local populations and disrupted traditional industries.

The Sepoy Mutiny (Indian Rebellion of 1857)

Causes: Indian soldiers (sepoys) in the British army rebelled after rumors spread that their rifle cartridges were greased with cow and pig fat, offending Hindu and Muslim religious beliefs.

Outcome: Although the rebellion spread across northern India, it was ultimately crushed by British forces.

Consequences:

• The rebellion ended Mughal rule completely; the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, was exiled.
• India was placed under direct British Crown control in 1858, with Queen Victoria declared Empress of India.
• The rebellion marked a turning point: from corporate control by the BEIC to formal colonization by the British government.

Effects of British Rule

Positive: Expansion of railroads, telegraphs, postal services, and education. Some Indians gained access to Western knowledge and legal reforms.

Negative: British policies destroyed traditional Indian industries (such as textiles), led to heavy taxation, and prioritized British profits over Indian welfare.

Cultural Impact: Upper-caste Indians were introduced to English education, Christianity, and Western political ideas. This led to the growth of Indian nationalism.

Indian Resistance

• Indian National Congress (founded 1885): A political party formed by educated Indians to demand reforms and, eventually, independence.
• Although independence was not achieved until the mid-20th century, the groundwork for anti-colonial nationalism was laid in this period.

Takeaway: British imperialism in India blended economic exploitation with modernization efforts. It left behind a legacy of both development and deep inequality, and it sparked the rise of Indian nationalism that would eventually overthrow British rule.

European Imperialism in China

China in the 18th century was a powerful and largely self-sufficient empire under the Qing Dynasty. However, European industrial powers forced their way into China in the 19th century, using military power and unequal treaties to gain economic and political influence. This period marked the decline of Chinese sovereignty and the rise of Western dominance in Asia.

Background

• Before the 1830s, China limited foreign trade to the port city of Canton under strict regulation. Europe desperately wanted Chinese goods like tea, porcelain, and silk but had little to offer in return.
• Industrial powers used their military and technological advantages to break through China’s isolationist policies.

The Opium Wars

First Opium War (1839–1842):

• British traders illegally sold opium in China to balance trade deficits, causing widespread addiction.
• The Qing government banned and confiscated opium, leading Britain to declare war.
• Britain’s industrial weapons and navy easily defeated China.
• Treaty of Nanjing (1842): Forced China to open several ports to British trade, pay reparations, and give up Hong Kong as a crown colony.

Second Opium War (1856–1860):

• Britain and France fought China to expand trade privileges further.
• Ended with more unequal treaties that legalized opium trade and opened nearly all of China to Western merchants.

Internal Rebellions and Weakening of the Qing Dynasty

• White Lotus Rebellion (1796–1804): Early uprising by Buddhists against government corruption and heavy taxes.

Taiping Rebellion (1850–1864):

• Led by Hong Xiuquan, a religious zealot claiming to be the brother of Jesus.
• Became one of the deadliest conflicts in history, with 20–30 million deaths.
• Almost toppled the Qing Dynasty, showing how weak imperial control had become.

Self-Strengthening Movement (1860s): Attempt by Qing leaders to modernize military and economy while keeping Confucian traditions. It failed due to corruption and resistance to change.

Foreign Encroachment

• Korea: Declared independence from China in 1876 under Japanese and Western pressure.
• Sino-French War (1883–1885): China lost control of Vietnam, which became a French colony.
• Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895): Japan, having industrialized under the Meiji Restoration, defeated China easily.
• Treaty of Shimonoseki (1895): China ceded Taiwan to Japan and granted Japan trading rights.

Consequences

Loss of Sovereignty: China was carved into spheres of influence by Britain, France, Germany, Russia, and Japan.

Economic Exploitation: Foreign powers controlled China’s ports, customs, and railroads, siphoning wealth out of the country.

Rise of Nationalism: Foreign domination and government weakness sparked nationalist movements that would eventually contribute to the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1911.

Takeaway: The Opium Wars and unequal treaties showed how industrial powers could use military force to dominate traditional empires. China’s humiliation marked a major turning point in world history, signaling the shift of global power toward industrialized Western nations and Japan.

European Imperialism in Africa

In the late 19th century, European powers rapidly colonized almost all of Africa in what became known as the Scramble for Africa. Driven by industrialization, nationalism, and competition, European nations divided the continent with little regard for its people, cultures, or political boundaries. This imperial conquest reshaped Africa’s societies, economies, and future.

Causes of the Scramble for Africa

Industrial Needs: Africa provided raw materials such as rubber, palm oil, cotton, ivory, gold, and diamonds to fuel European factories and industries.

National Rivalries: European powers sought to increase their global influence by acquiring colonies. Owning colonies became a symbol of national strength.

Strategic Locations: Control of key territories (like the Suez Canal in Egypt) allowed Europeans to dominate global trade routes.

Ideological Justifications: Social Darwinism and the “White Man’s Burden” framed colonization as a duty to civilize Africans, masking economic exploitation as moral obligation.

The Berlin Conference (1884–1885)

• European nations met in Berlin, Germany, to formalize the division of Africa.
• No African leaders were invited, and African interests were completely ignored.
• The conference established rules for claiming territory, such as demonstrating effective occupation, which accelerated colonization.

Examples of Colonization

British Empire:

• Controlled Egypt, South Africa, and territories from “Cape to Cairo.”
• Seized the Suez Canal (1875) to control trade between Europe and Asia.

French Empire:

• Took large parts of West and North Africa, including Algeria and Senegal.

Belgian Congo:

• King Leopold II of Belgium personally controlled the Congo Free State.
• Rubber and ivory extraction led to horrific human rights abuses, forced labor, and millions of deaths.

German Colonies:

• Established colonies in East Africa (Tanzania) and Southwest Africa (Namibia), where brutal suppression of revolts occurred, including genocide against the Herero and Nama peoples.

Consequences of Imperialism in Africa

Political: Traditional African kingdoms and societies were dismantled. New colonial borders ignored ethnic and cultural boundaries, creating long-term conflict.

Economic: Colonies were forced into extractive economies designed to benefit Europe. Infrastructure (railroads, ports) was built mainly to export raw materials, not to benefit locals.

Social and Cultural:

• Christian missionaries spread Western education and religion, undermining indigenous beliefs.
• European languages became official languages in many colonies, eroding traditional cultures.

Resistance: Africans resisted through rebellions and uprisings, such as the Zulu resistance in South Africa and the Mahdist Revolt in Sudan, though most were crushed by superior European weaponry.

Takeaway: The Scramble for Africa was one of the most aggressive examples of imperialism in history. It left deep scars: economic exploitation, artificial borders, and weakened African societies that would struggle for independence well into the 20th century.

New Labor Systems and Migration

Industrialization and imperialism reshaped global migration patterns. As European powers expanded their colonies, they demanded massive amounts of labor. With slavery abolished, new systems of coerced and semi-coerced labor emerged, often exploiting vulnerable populations across continents.

Types of Labor Systems

Indentured Servitude:

• Workers (often from India or China) signed contracts to labor in colonies for a set number of years in exchange for passage, food, or small wages.
• Common destinations included the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and Africa, where they worked on plantations, railroads, and mines.
• Although technically voluntary, many faced harsh conditions and restrictions similar to slavery.

Contract Labor:

• Similar to indenture, but contracts often included deceptive terms and little chance of escape.
• Chinese “coolie” laborers and Indian workers were recruited in large numbers after the end of the Atlantic slave trade.

Convict Labor:

• European powers used prisoners as a cheap workforce in colonies.
• Examples: Australia as a British penal colony; French penal colonies like Devil’s Island.

Voluntary Migrations

Economic Opportunities: Many Europeans emigrated to the Americas for jobs in factories, mines, and railroads.

Seasonal Workers: People from Asia, like Japanese agricultural workers, migrated seasonally to Hawaii, California, and Peru.

Push Factors: Famines (such as the Irish Potato Famine) and political unrest pushed millions to migrate in search of stability.

Effects of Global Migration

Economic: Provided the cheap labor needed to sustain industrial growth in colonies.

Social: Created ethnic enclaves (e.g., Chinatowns, Indian communities) where migrants preserved their culture while adapting to new lands.

Political: Migration often led to tensions with native populations, fueling nativist movements and discriminatory laws (e.g., Chinese Exclusion Act in the U.S.).

Takeaway: Even after slavery ended, colonial powers created new systems of coerced labor to meet the demands of industrial economies. Migration shaped global demographics and left lasting cultural footprints in destination countries.

Resistance to Imperialism

Colonized peoples did not passively accept European imperialism. Across Africa, Asia, and Oceania, resistance movements challenged European rule. Though most were suppressed, they demonstrated the resilience of local cultures and foreshadowed the independence movements of the 20th century.

Types of Resistance

Armed Rebellions:

• Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny): Already discussed, a major uprising against British disrespect of Hindu and Muslim traditions.
• Zulu Resistance (South Africa): Under leaders like Shaka Zulu, the Zulu kingdom resisted British and Dutch expansion, though eventually defeated by superior weapons.
• Mahdist Revolt (Sudan): Led by Muhammad Ahmad (the Mahdi) in the 1880s, successfully fought against British and Egyptian control before being crushed.

Religious Movements:

• Ghost Dance (United States): Native American spiritual movement in the late 1800s promising the restoration of their lands and way of life; ended violently at Wounded Knee.
• Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement (South Africa, 1856): The Xhosa believed destroying their cattle would drive away Europeans; it led to famine and collapse of resistance.

Nationalist Movements:

• Early nationalist groups like the Indian National Congress (1885) began pushing for reform and self-rule.
• In China, the failure of the Qing government to resist foreigners inspired movements like the Self-Strengthening Movement and later the Boxer Rebellion (1899–1901).

Consequences of Resistance

• Most rebellions were crushed due to European military superiority (machine guns, railroads, steamships).
• However, these uprisings kept anti-imperialist sentiment alive, inspiring future independence movements in the 20th century.
• They also revealed the deep cultural and spiritual resistance to European attempts to reshape colonized societies.

Takeaway: Resistance movements showed that colonized peoples never fully accepted imperial rule. Though most were unsuccessful at the time, they laid the foundation for the wave of decolonization after World War II.

Japanese Imperialism in the 19th Century

Unlike many other non-Western nations, Japan successfully resisted Western domination by rapidly industrializing and adopting Western technologies during the Meiji Restoration (1868). Within decades, Japan went from a feudal society to a modern imperial power, competing with Europe and the United States for colonies and influence in Asia.

The Meiji Restoration

Background: After more than 200 years of isolation under the Tokugawa Shogunate, Japan was forced to open its ports when U.S. Commodore Matthew Perry arrived with warships in 1853.

Political Change: In 1868, reformers restored imperial power to Emperor Meiji, abolishing the shogunate and launching reforms.

Modernization: Japan adopted Western-style education, government, and industry, while blending them with traditional Japanese culture.

Industrial and Military Reforms

• Created a modern military with conscription, modern rifles, and a powerful navy.
• Built railroads, factories, and shipyards, fueling rapid industrial growth.
• Sent students and officials abroad to study Western science, engineering, and military techniques.

Expansion and Imperialism

First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895):

• Japan defeated China, gaining Taiwan and influence in Korea.
• Showed Japan’s ability to rival traditional powers in Asia.

Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905):

• Japan shocked the world by defeating Russia, a major European power.
• Secured control over Korea and parts of Manchuria.
• This was the first time an Asian nation defeated a European empire in modern warfare.

Korea and Manchuria: By the early 20th century, Japan established Korea as a colony (1910) and expanded into Manchuria for raw materials and strategic territory.

Ideological Justification

• Like Europe, Japan embraced ideas of Social Darwinism, claiming it was Japan’s duty to modernize and “civilize” its neighbors.
• Nationalism played a central role, with the emperor promoted as a divine leader uniting the nation in its imperial mission.

Consequences of Japanese Imperialism

Positive for Japan: Rapid modernization, increased global prestige, and access to raw materials and markets.

Negative for Colonies: Harsh rule in Korea and Taiwan, suppression of local cultures, forced labor, and resource extraction for Japanese benefit.

Global Impact: Japan’s rise challenged Western dominance in Asia, inspiring colonized peoples elsewhere to believe that non-Western nations could resist and defeat European powers.

Takeaway: Japan’s imperialism was unique because it demonstrated that a non-Western nation could industrialize rapidly and become an imperial power. It reshaped power dynamics in Asia and set the stage for Japan’s major role in global conflicts of the 20th century.

Global Migration in the 19th Century and Its Consequences

The 19th century was an age of massive migration, both voluntary and coerced. Industrialization and imperialism created new demands for labor, while political unrest, famine, and economic hardship pushed millions to leave their homelands. This movement of people reshaped societies across the world and left lasting cultural, economic, and political consequences.

Causes of Migration

Push Factors:

• Famine and poverty (e.g., the Irish Potato Famine, 1845–1849).
• Political unrest and persecution (e.g., Jewish populations fleeing pogroms in Russia).
• Population growth and lack of land due to agricultural changes in Europe and Asia.

Pull Factors:

• Industrial economies in the Americas and colonies promised jobs in factories, mines, and railroads.
• Opportunities for land ownership in settler colonies (United States, Canada, Australia, New Zealand).
• Religious and political freedom in new lands compared to oppressive regimes in home countries.

Colonial Labor Demand:

• After abolition of slavery, European colonies turned to indentured servitude, contract labor, and convict labor to supply cheap workers.

Major Migration Patterns

Indian Migration:

• Millions of Indians moved as indentured laborers to colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and the Pacific.
• They worked on plantations, railroads, and in trade.

Chinese Migration:

• Large numbers of Chinese migrants moved to Southeast Asia, California, and the Caribbean.
• Often worked in mines, railroads, and agriculture under difficult conditions.

European Migration:

• Over 50 million Europeans emigrated, especially to the Americas.
• They sought jobs in growing industries, cheap farmland, and better living standards.

Convict Labor:

• Britain transported convicts to Australia, while France used penal colonies like Devil’s Island.

Consequences of Migration

Economic:

• Supplied labor for global industrial economies, especially in colonies and settler states.
• Helped build infrastructure such as railroads, ports, and plantations.
• Created remittance systems where migrants sent money home, boosting home economies.

Social and Cultural:

• Formation of ethnic enclaves (e.g., Chinatowns, Indian neighborhoods) where migrants preserved culture, religion, and traditions.
• Fusion of cultures in music, food, and language, especially in port cities and plantations.

Political:

• Some host countries passed restrictive immigration laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882) in the U.S. and the White Australia Policy (1901).
• Migrant labor sometimes fueled nationalist resentment in host societies, leading to discrimination and violence.

Demographic:

• Shifted global population balances, especially in the Americas and Oceania.
• Spread religions and cultural practices worldwide, making societies more diverse.

Takeaway: Migration during the industrial age was one of the largest in history, reshaping the global economy and leaving deep cultural and demographic legacies. While it provided labor for industrial growth, it also sparked cultural blending, xenophobia, and new forms of social conflict.

Global Social, Economic, Political, and Cultural Changes (1750–1900)

The period of industrialization and imperialism transformed nearly every aspect of human life. These changes were interconnected: economic growth fueled political expansion, political changes reshaped societies, and cultural shifts both supported and resisted industrial and imperial power. Understanding these global consequences is essential for connecting Unit 6 themes.

Social Changes

Urbanization:

• Millions moved from rural villages to growing industrial cities for work.
• Crowded living conditions led to poor sanitation, disease outbreaks, and the rise of slums.

New Social Classes:

• Industrial Working Class: Factory and mine workers faced long hours and unsafe conditions.
• Middle Class (bourgeoisie): Factory owners, merchants, and professionals gained wealth and influence.
• Women increasingly entered the workforce, though paid less and restricted socially.

Demographic Shifts:

• Large-scale migrations (Indian, Chinese, and European) reshaped population balances across the globe.
• Ethnic enclaves formed in cities worldwide, preserving culture while blending with local traditions.

Reform Movements: Feminism, labor unions, and abolitionism emerged to demand greater rights and protections.

Economic Changes

Global Capitalism:

• Industrialized nations dominated global trade and finance.
• New banks, stock exchanges, and joint-stock companies facilitated massive investment.

Imperialist Economies:

• Colonies were reorganized into export economies, producing raw materials like cotton, rubber, and palm oil for industrial nations.
• Infrastructure (railroads, canals, ports) was built primarily to serve colonial interests.

Technological Advances:

• Steamships, railroads, and telegraphs connected markets globally.
• Industrial nations increasingly relied on fossil fuels, especially coal and later oil.

Inequality: Industrialized nations grew wealthy, while colonized regions were exploited and often remained underdeveloped.

Political Changes

Expansion of Empires:

• Britain, France, and other European powers expanded empires across Africa and Asia.
• Japan became an imperial power after the Meiji Restoration, challenging European dominance.

Colonial Rule:

• Direct rule (e.g., British Raj in India) and indirect rule (using local elites) expanded European control.
• New boundaries often ignored cultural and ethnic divisions, sowing seeds for future conflict.

Nationalism:

• Colonized peoples began organizing nationalist movements (Indian National Congress, early Chinese reform movements).
• National unification occurred in Europe (Germany, Italy), showing nationalism’s double role in both colonization and anti-colonial resistance.

Reforms: Some governments (like Bismarck’s Germany) introduced social reforms to prevent revolution, such as pensions and labor laws.

Cultural Changes

Spread of Western Education and Religion:

• Missionary schools and Western-style education spread Christianity and European values in Africa and Asia.
• New literate classes emerged in colonies, often becoming leaders in later independence movements.

Scientific Racism and Social Darwinism:

• Pseudoscience was used to justify imperial rule and the oppression of colonized peoples.

Artistic and Intellectual Reactions:

• Romanticism: Emphasized emotion and nature as a response to industrial mechanization.
• Realism: Depicted the struggles of industrial and working-class life.

Cultural Blending: Migration created multicultural cities where food, music, and traditions mixed, though often alongside discrimination.

Takeaway: Industrialization and imperialism didn’t just change economies — they reshaped the entire global order. By 1900, industrial powers controlled most of the world, while colonized and migrant populations laid the groundwork for new cultural exchanges and nationalist struggles in the 20th century.