Unit 2: Cognition

Influencing Factors

Internal Factors:
Psychological State: Emotions, motivations, and expectations can alter how we perceive information. For example, someone in a happy mood may interpret surroundings more positively.

Past Experiences: Previous encounters shape how current stimuli are interpreted. For example, someone who had a frightening experience with dogs may perceive a new dog encounter as threatening.

Individual Differences: Traits such as personality, creativity, and cognitive abilities dictate how situations are perceived. A creative thinker may interpret the same scene differently from a rigid thinker.

External Factors:
Cultural Background: Cultural contexts shape interpretations of stimuli. For instance, colors may carry different meanings across cultures.

Social Influences: The presence or expectations of others can influence how events are perceived, often leading to conformity.

Physical Environment: Lighting, noise, color saturation, and other aspects of the environment can alter perception. Poor lighting, for instance, can cause misinterpretation of an object’s color or details.

Visual Perceptual Processes

Visual perceptual processes involve the interpretation and organization of visual stimuli to help individuals make sense of their surroundings.

Influencing Factors:
Internal Factors include emotions and motivations, prior experiences, and cognitive traits. For example, a person in a bad mood may interpret neutral expressions as negative.

External Factors include cultural background and social influences. For instance, observing how peers react to visual cues can shape one’s own interpretation.

Outcomes:
Correct Interpretations occur when psychological states and external conditions align positively with stimuli.
Incorrect Interpretations occur when biases or cultural differences distort what is perceived, leading to misunderstandings.

Thinking, Problem-Solving, Judgments, and Decision Making

Psychological concepts and theories help explain how individuals think, solve problems, make judgments, and make decisions.

Key Contributions

Cognition: The mental processes involved in acquiring knowledge and understanding.

The Information Processing Model describes three stages:
Encoding: Converting sensory input into a storable form for decision-making.
Storage: Maintaining information for future use.
Retrieval: Accessing stored information to solve problems and make decisions.

Types of Memory:
Sensory Memory: Briefly holds sensory information for quick evaluation.
Short-Term Memory: Temporarily holds limited information (about 7 ± 2 items), aiding immediate tasks.
Long-Term Memory: Stores information permanently, supporting decisions based on prior learning.
Working Memory: Allows manipulation of information temporarily, aiding active problem-solving.

Cognitive Biases:
Confirmation Bias: Tendency to favor information that confirms preconceptions.
Functional Fixedness: Restricts problem-solving by limiting thinking to conventional object uses.

Heuristics:
Mental shortcuts that speed decision-making but risk errors. Example: Availability heuristic, where judgments are based on immediate examples that come to mind.

Theories of Forgetting:
Memory retention and retrieval theories, like Decay Theory (memories fade if not used) and Interference Theory (other memories disrupt recall), highlight why forgetting affects problem-solving.

Note: These processes explain how individuals adapt strategies for problem-solving and make decisions influenced by cognition and biases.

Introduction to Memory

Types of Memory:
Sensory Memory: Holds incoming sensory information briefly for quick evaluation.

Short-Term Memory: Holds information temporarily (7 ± 2 items) for immediate tasks.

Long-Term Memory: Stores information for extended periods.
Explicit Memory (Declarative): Facts and experiences consciously recalled.
Implicit Memory (Non-declarative): Skills and conditioned responses performed without conscious thought.

Working Memory: Temporarily holds and manipulates information for reasoning and comprehension.

Processes of Memory

Encoding: Converting sensory input into a form that can be stored. Effective encoding improves long-term retention.

Storage: Organizing and maintaining information, aided by rehearsal and organization.

Retrieval: Accessing stored information when required. Cues, context, and emotions can influence retrieval success.

Theories of Forgetting

Decay Theory: Memories fade over time if unused.

Interference Theory: Other information disrupts memory retrieval. Proactive interference occurs when old information disrupts new learning. Retroactive interference occurs when new information disrupts old memory recall.

Ebbinghaus’ Forgetting Curve: Hermann Ebbinghaus, a pioneering psychologist, studied how quickly information is forgotten over time. His curve shows that memory retention declines sharply within the first 24 hours after learning, then levels off gradually. This means much of what we learn is forgotten quickly unless reinforced through review or rehearsal. The curve demonstrates the importance of strategies such as spaced repetition to strengthen long-term memory.

Cognitive Biases: Systematic patterns of irrational judgment or distorted thinking can influence how we remember, leading to illogical conclusions or selective recall.

Encoding Memories

Encoding is the first step in creating a new memory. It involves converting sensory input into a format that can be stored in memory for future retrieval.