Personality refers to the characteristic patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving that make each individual unique. Psychologists study personality through multiple perspectives, including psychodynamic, humanistic, social-cognitive, and trait theories. This unit also examines methods of assessment and common critiques.
Sigmund Freud believed personality is shaped by unconscious motives and early childhood experiences. His theories emphasize conflict between biological drives, social expectations, and moral values.
Id: Operates on the pleasure principle, seeking immediate gratification. Example: eating dessert before dinner.
Ego: Operates on the reality principle, mediating between id desires and real-world demands. Example: waiting until dinner to eat dessert.
Superego: Represents moral standards and ideals internalized from parents and society. Example: feeling guilty after lying.
Unconscious strategies the ego uses to reduce anxiety by distorting reality.
Repression: Forcing distressing memories out of awareness.
Denial: Rejecting evidence of reality.
Projection: Attributing one’s unacceptable impulses to others.
Regression: Retreating to an earlier stage of development.
Displacement: Redirecting feelings toward a less threatening target.
Rationalization: Justifying behavior with socially acceptable reasons.
Sublimation: Channeling unacceptable impulses into productive activities (e.g., art, sports).
Reaction Formation: Behaving in ways opposite of one’s true feelings.
Freud proposed five stages, each with an erogenous zone. Fixations can influence adult personality.
Oral (0–18 months): Focus on mouth; fixation → dependency, overeating, smoking.
Anal (18–36 months): Focus on bowel/bladder control; fixation → orderliness or messiness.
Phallic (3–6 years): Focus on genitals; includes Oedipus/Electra complex; fixation → relationship issues.
Latency (6–puberty): Sexual impulses repressed; focus on social and intellectual skills.
Genital (puberty onward): Sexual maturity; goal is healthy intimate relationships.
Neo-Freudians kept Freud’s emphasis on the unconscious but focused more on social and cultural influences.
Carl Jung: Proposed the collective unconscious, a shared reservoir of memories called archetypes (hero, mother, shadow).
Alfred Adler: Developed the concept of the inferiority complex and emphasized striving for superiority through social interest.
Karen Horney: Criticized Freud’s view of women; emphasized the need for love and security and the role of cultural influences.
Key Difference from Freudian psychologists: Less emphasis on sexual drives, more on cultural and social dynamics.
Humanists emphasized personal growth, free will, and the belief that people are inherently good. They focused on conscious experience rather than the unconscious.
Carl Rogers: Highlighted self-concept and believed people need unconditional positive regard (acceptance without conditions) to grow. Conditions of worth can distort self-concept.
Abraham Maslow: Developed the hierarchy of needs, with self-actualization as the highest potential. Self-actualized individuals are creative, accepting, and problem-focused.
Key Idea: Personality development is driven by striving for self-actualization and a positive self-concept.
Albert Bandura emphasized the reciprocal interaction of behavior, personal factors, and environment in shaping personality.
Reciprocal Determinism: Behavior, cognition, and environment all influence each other.
Observational Learning: Personality is shaped by watching models, as in Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment.
Self-Efficacy: Belief in one’s ability to succeed in specific tasks.
Trait theorists focus on identifying consistent patterns of behavior and thought across time and situations.
Openness: Curiosity, creativity, and open-mindedness.
Conscientiousness: Dependability, organization, self-discipline.
Extraversion: Sociability, assertiveness, enthusiasm.
Agreeableness: Compassion, trust, cooperativeness.
Neuroticism: Emotional instability, anxiety, moodiness.
Psychologists use objective and projective tests:
Each perspective has strengths and weaknesses:
Psychodynamic: Emphasizes unconscious processes but lacks empirical evidence.
Humanistic: Inspires positive psychology but criticized as too subjective and unscientific.
Social-Cognitive: Supported by evidence of observational learning, but may underestimate biological influences.
Trait: Reliable and measurable, but does not explain how traits develop.
Several theories explain the sources of motivation, ranging from biological drives to social and cognitive factors.
Drive-Reduction Theory: Clark Hull proposed that motivation arises from biological needs that create internal tension (drives). The goal is to restore homeostasis.
Example: Hunger motivates eating to restore energy balance.
Incentive Theory: Motivation can also be driven by external rewards or punishments.
Example: Working for a paycheck.
Arousal Theory: People are motivated to maintain an optimal level of arousal (not too low, not too high) for peak performance.
Example: Athletes performing best with moderate arousal (Yerkes-Dodson Law).
Maslow’s model suggests that basic needs must be met before higher-order growth needs can be achieved.
1. Physiological Needs: Food, water, shelter.
2. Safety Needs: Security, stability, protection.
3. Love/Belonging Needs: Relationships, affection, community.
4. Esteem Needs: Achievement, recognition, respect.
5. Self-Actualization: Fulfilling one’s full potential, creativity, personal growth.
Critiques and Extensions: Some argue Maslow’s model is culturally biased and lacks empirical support. Newer models integrate evolutionary perspectives and acknowledge that needs can overlap rather than follow a strict sequence.
Motivation can come from within or from external factors.
Effects on Behavior: Intrinsic motivation is linked to higher satisfaction, persistence, and long-term performance. Extrinsic rewards can be effective but may sometimes reduce intrinsic motivation (overjustification effect).
Emotions are complex psychological states involving physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience. They play a critical role in human behavior and decision-making.
Physiological Arousal: Bodily responses such as heart rate, sweating, and adrenaline release.
Expressive Behaviors: Visible signs of emotion, like facial expressions and body language.
Conscious Experience: Subjective awareness of feelings and accompanying thoughts.
Mood vs. Emotion: Emotions are shorter-lived but more intense; moods are less intense but longer-lasting.
Psychologists have developed multiple theories to explain how emotions arise.
James-Lange Theory: Emotion results from awareness of physiological responses.
Example: “I feel afraid because my heart is racing.”
Cannon-Bard Theory: Physiological arousal and emotional experience occur simultaneously.
Example: Fear and increased heartbeat happen at the same time.
Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory: Emotion requires both physiological arousal and a cognitive label.
Example: Heart racing + “This situation is dangerous” → fear.
Lazarus’ Cognitive Appraisal Theory: Emotions depend on our interpretation (appraisal) of a situation, even without conscious awareness.
Evolutionary Theories (Darwin/Ekman): Emotions are adaptive and universal (e.g., anger, fear, happiness). Paul Ekman identified six universal facial expressions.
Sequential vs. Simultaneous Processing:
Debate exists about whether physiological responses and cognitive experiences occur one after the other or at the same time.
Sequential Theories: Propose that we first experience physiological changes, which then lead to emotions (e.g., James-Lange).
Simultaneous Theories: Propose that arousal and emotion occur together (e.g., Cannon-Bard).
Some theories (e.g., Schachter-Singer Two-Factor) argue that arousal must be cognitively labeled to be experienced as a specific emotion. Example: increased heart rate could be excitement or fear depending on context.
Suggests that facial expressions themselves can influence emotional experiences. Smiling can increase happiness, while frowning can intensify sadness. Research shows mixed evidence, but some studies confirm the effect.
Positive emotions expand awareness and encourage creativity and new behaviors, while negative emotions narrow focus on immediate threats.
Emotions serve adaptive purposes, influencing survival, decision-making, and relationships.
Positive Emotions (joy, love, excitement):Strategies: Cognitive reappraisal, suppression, mindfulness, and adaptive coping.
Brain Structures: The limbic system (especially the amygdala) processes fear and aggression; the prefrontal cortex regulates emotional responses.
Universality vs. Cultural Variations: While basic emotions are universal, cultural “display rules” shape how emotions are expressed.
Display Rules: Social norms dictating appropriate emotional expressions in specific contexts.