This unit explores how people think about, influence, and relate to one another. Topics include attribution, person perception, social influence, conformity, obedience, persuasion, group dynamics, and prosocial behavior.
Attribution theory examines how we explain behavior, both our own and others'. Understanding attributions and biases helps us navigate social interactions more effectively.
Dispositional (internal) attribution: Linking behavior to personality traits or intelligence.
Example: “He failed because he’s lazy.”
Situational (external) attribution: Linking behavior to environmental circumstances.
Example: “He failed because the test was unfair.”
Fundamental Attribution Error: Overestimating dispositional factors and underestimating situational ones when judging others’ behavior.
Actor-Observer Bias: Attributing our own behavior to situations, but others’ behavior to their dispositions.
Self-Serving Bias: Taking credit for successes (internal attribution) but blaming failures on external factors.
The degree to which people believe they control life outcomes.
Internal locus: Outcomes result from one’s own actions → linked to motivation and resilience.
External locus: Outcomes controlled by luck, fate, or others → linked to helplessness.
Application Example:
Two students fail a test:
Internal locus: “I’ll study harder next time.”
External locus: “The teacher made it impossible.”
People develop preferences simply from repeated exposure to stimuli.
Example 1: Liking a song more after hearing it multiple times.
Example 2: Preferring a brand after frequent advertisements.
Beliefs lead to behaviors that confirm those beliefs.
Example 1: A teacher expects poor performance → gives less support → student underperforms.
Example 2: Believing you are socially awkward → act withdrawn → others avoid → reinforces belief.
Evaluating oneself against others.
Upward comparison: Compare to someone “better off” → can inspire but also lower self-esteem.
Downward comparison: Compare to someone “worse off” → can boost self-esteem but lower motivation.
Relative Deprivation: Feeling worse off after comparing to others, even without absolute deprivation.
Our attitudes and stereotypes shape behavior and can be resistant to change.
Stereotypes: Oversimplified beliefs about groups → reduce cognitive load but can fuel prejudice.
Implicit Attitudes: Unconscious attitudes that affect behavior without awareness.
Belief Perseverance: Clinging to beliefs despite contradictory evidence.
Cognitive Dissonance: Discomfort from holding conflicting beliefs/actions → motivates attitude change to restore consistency.
Conformity: Adjusting behavior/thinking to match group standards (Asch conformity experiment).
Obedience: Following authority figures (Milgram shock experiment).
Deindividuation: Loss of self-awareness/restraint in groups (e.g., riots).
Social Facilitation: Improved performance on easy tasks in presence of others; worse on difficult tasks.
Social Loafing: People exert less effort in groups than alone.
Groupthink: Desire for harmony overrides realistic decision-making (Janis).
Group Polarization: Discussion strengthens the group’s prevailing opinions.
Stanford Prison Experiment (Zimbardo): Showed power of social roles and authority in shaping behavior.
Bystander Effect: Less likely to help when others are present (Darley & Latané).
Diffusion of Responsibility: Individuals feel less personally responsible in groups.
Altruism: Helping others without expecting reward.
Central Route Persuasion: Persuasion via logic, evidence, and arguments.
Peripheral Route Persuasion: Persuasion via superficial cues (attractiveness, celebrity endorsements).
Milgram’s Obedience Experiment (1960s): Participants were instructed to administer electric shocks to a learner for wrong answers. Many continued to high shock levels despite distress, showing the power of authority.
Asch Conformity Experiment (1950s): Participants judged line lengths. Confederates gave wrong answers, and many participants conformed to the group’s incorrect choice.
Normative Social Influence: Conforming to gain approval or avoid disapproval.
Informational Social Influence: Conforming because we believe others have accurate information.
Compliance: Changing behavior when requested by others, even without authority.
Obedience: Following direct orders from an authority figure.
Prejudice: Unjustifiable attitude toward a group and its members (often negative).
Discrimination: Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
In-Group Bias: Favoring one’s own group (in-group) over others (out-group).
Out-Group Homogeneity Effect: Belief that out-group members are all the same.
Scapegoat Theory: Blaming a group for problems to reduce frustration.
Just-World Phenomenon: Belief that people get what they deserve (“blaming the victim”).
Aggression: Behavior intended to harm someone physically or emotionally.
Biological influences: Genetics, brain structures (amygdala), hormones (testosterone).
Psychological influences: Frustration-aggression principle (frustration creates anger, leading to aggression).
Social-cultural influences: Exposure to violent media, cultural norms encouraging aggression.
Proximity: Geographic closeness increases attraction (mere exposure effect).
Physical Attractiveness: Strong predictor of dating choices; associated with positive social perceptions.
Similarity: People are more likely to be attracted to those with similar attitudes, interests, and values.
Companionate Love: Deep affectionate attachment built over time.
Passionate Love: Intense, arousing form of love, usually early in relationships.
Bystander Effect: Tendency for bystanders to be less likely to help if others are present.
Foot-in-the-Door Phenomenon: People who first agree to a small request are more likely to later comply with a larger one.
Door-in-the-Face Technique: People are more likely to agree to a small request after refusing a large one.